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BACKGROUND. Given the apparent high mortality associated with the novel swine-origin influenza A/H1N1 virus (S-OIV) in Mexico, we aimed to study the cytokine profiles induced by S-OIV and the effect of immunomodulators. METHODS. We assayed cytokines and their messenger RNA (mRNA) levels in culture supernatants of human macrophages infected with H5N1, S-OIV California/04/2009 (S-OIV-CA), S-OIV Hong Kong/415742 (S-OIV-HK), or seasonal H1N1 with or without celecoxib and mesalazine. RESULTS. Among the 12 cytokines showing detectable levels, levels of 8 proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL] 2R, IL-6, interferon [IFN] alpha, macrophage inflammatory protein [MIP] alpha, MIP-1beta, IFN-induced protein 10, regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted [RANTES], and monocyte chemotactic protein [MCP] 1) were higher in cells infected by H5N1 but similar among cells infected with H1N1, S-OIV-CA, or S-OIV-HK. The levels of the other 4 cytokines were similar for H5N1, H1N1, S-OIV-CA and S-OIV-HK. Among the 8 cytokines induced by H5N1, 6 were suppressed by celecoxib and mesalazine. The mRNA levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha, IFN-gamma, IL-6, and MCP-1 induced by H5N1 were higher than the levels of other cytokines at 12 and/or 24 h. CONCLUSIONS. No major cytokine storm, as seen in H5N1 infection, is associated with S-OIV infection of cell lines. The mainstay of treatment for uncomplicated S-OIV infections should be antiviral agents without immunomodulators. For individual S-OIV-infected patients with severe primary viral pneumonia, severe sepsis, and multiorgan failure, immunomodulators may be considered as an adjunctive therapy in clinical trials.

Cytokine Profiles Induced by the Novel Swine‐Origin Influenza A/H1N1 Virus: Implications for Treatment Strategies