Management of damage by elk (Cervus elaphus) in North America: a review

Abundant populations of elk (Cervus elaphus) are cherished game in many regions of the world and also cause considerablehuman-wildlifeconflictsthroughdepredationonagricultureandspecialitycrops,lackofregenerationtonative ecosystems,collisionswithvehiclesandtransmissionofdiseasebetweenfree-rangingandfarmedhoofstock.Managementof elk varies, depending on current and historical agency objectives, configuration of the landscapes elk occupy, public perception, population density and behaviour of elk. Selection of the method to manage elk often requires knowledge of timing of impacts, duration relief from elk damage is desired, cost-effectiveness of management activities, tolerance of impacts, public perception of management strategies and motivation or habituation of elk to determine the likelihood of success for a proposed management action. We reviewed methods that are available to control abundant populations of elkthatincludelethal(e.g.hunting,sharpshooting)andnon-lethal(e.g.fertilitycontrol,frightening)options.Wepromotean integrated approach that incorporates the timely use of a variety of cost-effective methods to reduce impacts to tolerable levels.Lethaloptionsthatincluderegulatedhunting,sharpshootingandaerialgunningvarybylikelihoodofsuccess,duration neededforpopulationreduction,costtoimplementreductionandpublicperceptions.Severalnon-lethaloptionsareavailable to affect population dynamics directly (e.g. fertility control, translocation), protect resources from damage (e.g. fences, repellents) or influence space use of elk on a regular basis (e.g. harassment, frightening, herding dogs, humans). Public perceptionshouldbeconsideredbyagenciesthatarelookingforfeasiblemethodstocontrolpopulationsofelk.Disturbance to residents or visitors of public property may influence methods of management employed. Future research should explore thedurationofharassmentneededtoavertelkfromsensitiveareasandcoststoimplementsuchprograms.Severalmethodsin ourreviewwereimplementedondeerandadditionalresearchonelkandothercervidsinconflictwithhumaninterestswould provide a much needed component to our understanding of management methods available for ungulate species.