When does the test-study-test sequence optimize learning and retention?

In educational learning contexts, unlike typical contemporary laboratory paradigms, students have repeated opportunities to study and learn target material, thereby potentially allowing different sequences of testing and studying. We investigated learning and retention after several plausible sequences that were patterned on a classic memory paradigm. After initially reading a research methods text, 2 days later in 1 condition participants repeatedly restudied the material 3 times (SSS), in another condition they engaged in a test-restudy-test sequence (TST), and in a third condition participants repeatedly tested on the studied material (3 times: TTT). Participants received a final test 5 days later. In Experiment 1, both TST and TTT produced better final performance than did SSS; however, TST was not better than TTT. In Experiment 2 the TST condition was altered so that after the first test, correct/incorrect feedback was provided and the test and feedback were available during the study phase. With this protocol, TST produced better learning and retention than did TTT or SSS. These findings suggest possible critical aspects regarding test feedback and the availability of previous tests for helping students to optimize their restudy efforts after low- or no-stakes quizzes.