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The genetic variability of Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is one of the main challenges for its control, hindering not only the development of effective vaccination strategies but also its classification and, consequently, epidemiology understanding. The 624/I and Q1 genotypes, now recognized to be part of the GI-16 lineage, represent an excellent example of the practical consequences of IBV molecular epidemiology limited knowledge. In fact, being their common origin unrecognized for a long time, independent epidemiological pictures were drawn for the two genotypes. To fix this misinterpretation, the present study reconstructs the history, population dynamics and spreading patterns of GI-16 lineage as a whole using a phylodynamic approach. A collection of worldwide available hypervariable region 1 and 2 (HVR12) and 3 (HVR3) sequences of the S1 protein was analysed together with 258 HVR3 sequences obtained from samples collected in Italy (the country where this genotype was initially identified) since 1963. The results demonstrate that after its emergence at the beginning of the XX century, GI-16 was able to persist until present days in Italy. Approximately in the late 1980s, it migrated to Asia, which became the main nucleus for further spreading to Middle East, Europe and especially South America, likely through multiple introduction events. A remarkable among-country diffusion was also demonstrated in Asia and South America. Interestingly, although most of the recent Italian GI-16 strains originated from ancestral viruses detected in the same country, a couple were closely related to Chinese ones, supporting a backward viral flow from China to Italy. Besides to the specific case-study results, this work highlights the misconceptions that originate from the lack of a unified nomenclature and poor molecular epidemiology data generation and sharing. This shortcoming appears particularly relevant since the described scenario could likely be shared by many other IBV genotypes and pathogens in general.

GI-16 lineage (624/I or Q1), there and back again: The history of one of the major threats for poultry farming of our era