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Being permanently confronted with an uncertain world, brains have facedevolutionary pressure to represent this uncertainty in order to respondappropriately. Often, this requires visiting multiple interpretations of theavailable information or multiple solutions to an encountered problem. Thisgives rise to the so-called mixing problem: since all of these "valid" statesrepresent powerful attractors, but between themselves can be very dissimilar,switching between such states can be difficult. We propose that corticaloscillations can be effectively used to overcome this challenge. By acting asan effective temperature, background spiking activity modulates exploration.Rhythmic changes induced by cortical oscillations can then be interpreted as aform of simulated tempering. We provide a rigorous mathematical discussion ofthis link and study some of its phenomenological implications in computersimulations. This identifies a new computational role of cortical oscillationsand connects them to various phenomena in the brain, such as sampling-basedprobabilistic inference, memory replay, multisensory cue combination, and placecell flickering.

Cortical oscillations implement a backbone for sampling-based computation in spiking neural networks