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This paper reviews current knowledge on the deterministic and stochastic risks (the latter including the risk of cancer and of hereditary disease) associated with exposure to ionizing radiation. Particular attention is paid to cancer risks following exposure to man-made low linear energy transfer radiation. Excess cancer risks have been observed in the Japanese atomic bomb survivors and in many medically and occupationally exposed groups. In general, the relative risks among Japanese survivors of atomic-bomb explosions are greater than those among comparable subsets in studies of medically exposed individuals. Cell sterilization largely accounts for the discrepancy in relative risks between these two populations, although other factors may contribute, such as the generally higher underlying cancer risks in the medical series than in the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. Risks among occupationally exposed groups such as nuclear workforces and underground miners are generally consistent with those observed in the Japanese atomic bomb survivors.

Risks associated with ionizing radiation