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Objective.  Brain–machine interfaces (BMIs) have the potential to augment human functions and restore independence in people with disabilities, yet a compromise between non-invasiveness and performance limits their relevance.  Approach.  Here, we hypothesized that a non-invasive neuromuscular–machine interface providing real-time neurofeedback of individual motor units within a muscle could enable independent motor unit control to an extent suitable for high-performance BMI applications.  Main results.  Over 6 days of training, eight participants progressively learned to skillfully and independently control three biceps brachii motor units to complete a 2D center-out task. We show that neurofeedback enabled motor unit activity that largely violated recruitment constraints observed during ramp-and-hold isometric contractions thought to limit individual motor unit controllability. Finally, participants demonstrated the suitability of individual motor units for powering general applications through a spelling task.  Significance.  These results illustrate the flexibility of the sensorimotor system and highlight individual motor units as a promising source of control for BMI applications.

Skilled independent control of individual motor units via a non-invasive neuromuscular–machine interface