Comparison of forces for the Crookes and Hettner radiometers

The Crookes radiometer (also known as a light mill) is a fascinating sunlight-powered device, in which a set of vanes is placed inside a glass bulb within which a partial vacuum has been pulled. The vanes then rotate when sunlight shines on the bulb. The reason for the turning of the vanes was subject to intense debate and many students still have an incorrect understanding of the device. We analyse the forces involved in a much less well-known radiometer (called the Hettner radiometer) and show that this can help us to understand the forces involved in the Crookes radiometer in a more unified way.