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Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrous oxide (N(2)O) are formed during N-cycling in complex microbial communities in response to fluctuating molecular oxygen (O(2)) and nitrite (NO(2)(-)) concentrations. Until now, the formation of NO and N(2)O in microbial communities has been measured with low spatial and temporal resolution, which hampered elucidation of the turnover pathways and their regulation. In this study, we combined microsensor measurements with metabolic modeling to investigate the functional response of a complex biofilm with nitrifying and denitrifying activity to variations in O(2) and NO(2)(-). In steady state, NO and N(2)O formation was detected if ammonium (NH(4)(+)) was present under oxic conditions and if NO(2)(-) was present under anoxic conditions. Thus, NO and N(2)O are produced by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) under oxic conditions and by heterotrophic denitrifiers under anoxic conditions. NO and N(2)O formation by AOB occurred at fully oxic conditions if NO(2)(-) concentrations were high. Modeling showed that steady-state NO concentrations are controlled by the affinity of NO-consuming processes to NO. Transient accumulation of NO and N(2)O occurred upon O(2) removal from, or NO(2)(-) addition to, the medium only if NH(4)(+) was present under oxic conditions or if NO(2)(-) was already present under anoxic conditions. This showed that AOB and heterotrophic denitrifiers need to be metabolically active to respond with instantaneous NO and N(2)O production upon perturbations. Transiently accumulated NO and N(2)O decreased rapidly after their formation, indicating a direct effect of NO on the metabolism. By fitting model results to measurements, the kinetic relationships in the model were extended with dynamic parameters to predict transient NO release from perturbed ecosystems.

Mechanisms of transient nitric oxide and nitrous oxide production in a complex biofilm