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Background and Aims  Bacterial infections are common and severe in cirrhosis, but their pathogenesis is poorly understood. Dysfunction of liver macrophages may play a role, but information about their function in cirrhosis is limited. Our aims were to investigate the specific profile and function of liver macrophages in cirrhosis and their contribution to infections. Macrophages from human cirrhotic livers were characterized phenotypically by transcriptome analysis and flow cytometry; function was assessed  in vivo  by single photon emission computerized tomography in patients with cirrhosis. Serum levels of specific proteins and expression in peripheral monocytes were determined by ELISA and flow cytometry.  In vivo  phagocytic activity of liver macrophages was measured by spinning disk intravital microscopy in a mouse model of chronic liver injury.    Approach and Results  Liver macrophages from patients with cirrhosis overexpressed proteins related to immune exhaustion, such as programmed death ligand 1 (PD‐L1), macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (MARCO), and CD163.  In vivo  phagocytic activity of liver macrophages in patients with cirrhosis was markedly impaired. Monocytes from patients with cirrhosis showed overexpression of PD‐L1 that paralleled disease severity, correlated with its serum levels, and was associated with increased risk of infections. Blockade of PD‐L1 with anti‐PD‐L1 antibody caused a shift in macrophage phenotype toward a less immunosuppressive profile, restored liver macrophage  in vivo  phagocytic activity, and reduced bacterial dissemination.    Conclusion  Liver cirrhosis is characterized by a remarkable impairment of phagocytic function of macrophages associated with an immunosuppressive transcriptome profile. The programmed cell death receptor 1/PD‐L1 axis plays a major role in the impaired activity of liver macrophages. PD‐L1 blockade reverses the immune suppressive profile and increases antimicrobial activity of liver macrophages in cirrhosis.

hepatology

Programmed Death Ligand 1 Is Overexpressed in Liver Macrophages in Chronic Liver Diseases, and Its Blockade Improves the Antibacterial Activity Against Infections