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Cross-chain bridges are used to facilitate token and data exchanges acrossblockchains. Although bridges are becoming increasingly popular, they are stillin their infancy and have been attacked multiple times recently, causingsignificant financial loss. Although there are numerous reports onlineexplaining each of the incidents on cross-chain bridges, they are scatteredover the Internet, and there is no work that analyzes the security landscape ofcross-chain bridges in a holistic manner. To fill the gap, in this paper, weperformed a systematic study of cross-chain bridge security issues. First, wesummarize the characteristics of existing cross-chain bridges, including theirusages, verification mechanisms, communication models, and threecategorizations. Based on these characteristics, we identify 12 potentialattack vectors that attackers may exploit. Next, we introduce a taxonomy thatcategorizes cross-chain attacks in the past two years into 10 distinct types,and then provide explanations for each vulnerability type, accompanied bySolidity code examples. We also discuss existing and potential defenses, aswell as open questions and future research directions on cross-chain bridges.We believe that this systematization can shed light on designing andimplementing cross-chain bridges with higher security and, more importantly,facilitating future research on building a better cross-chain bridge ecosystem.

SoK: Security of Cross-chain Bridges: Attack Surfaces, Defenses, and Open Problems