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The inherent limitations in scaling up ground infrastructure for futurewireless networks, combined with decreasing operational costs of aerial andspace networks, are driving considerable research interest in multisegmentground-air-space (GAS) networks. In GAS networks, where ground and aerial usersshare network resources, ubiquitous and accurate user localization becomesindispensable, not only as an end-user service but also as an enabler forlocation-aware communications. This breaks the convention of havinglocalization as a byproduct in networks primarily designed for communications.To address these imperative localization needs, the design and utilization ofground, aerial, and space anchors require thorough investigation. In thistutorial, we provide an in-depth systemic analysis of the radio localizationproblem in GAS networks, considering ground and aerial users as targets to belocalized. Starting from a survey of the most relevant works, we then definethe key characteristics of anchors and targets in GAS networks. Subsequently,we detail localization fundamentals in GAS networks, considering 3D positionsand orientations. Afterward, we thoroughly analyze radio localization systemsin GAS networks, detailing the system model, design aspects, and considerationsfor each of the three GAS anchors. Preliminary results are presented to providea quantifiable perspective on key design aspects in GAS-based localizationscenarios. We then identify the vital roles 6G enablers are expected to play inradio localization in GAS networks.

On the Ground and in the Sky: A Tutorial on Radio Localization in Ground-Air-Space Networks