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Characteristic properties of secondary electrons emitted from irradiatedtwo-dimensional materials arise from multi-length and time-scale relaxationprocesses that connect the initial non-equilibrium excited electrondistribution with their eventual emission. To understand these processes, whichare critical for using secondary electrons as high-resolution thermalizationprobes, we combine first-principles real-time electron dynamics with modernexperiments. Our data for cold and hot proton-irradiated graphene showssignatures of kinetic and potential emission and generally good agreement forelectron yields between experiment and theory. The duration of the emissionpulse is about 1.5 femtoseconds, indicating high time resolution when used as aprobe. Our newly developed method to predict kinetic energy spectra shows goodagreement with electron and ion irradiation experiments and prior models. Wefind that lattice temperature significantly increases secondary electronemission, whereas electron temperature has a negligible effect.

Non-equilibrium dynamics of electron emission from cold and hot graphene under proton irradiation