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Teleoperated or remote-controlled driving complements automated driving andacts as transitional technology toward full automation. An economic advantageof teleoperated driving in logistics operations lies in managing fleets withfewer teleoperators compared to vehicles with in-vehicle drivers. Thisalleviates growing truck driver shortage problems in the logistics industry andsaves costs. However, a trade-off exists between the teleoperator-to-vehicleratio and the service level of teleoperation. This study designs a simulationframework to explore this trade-off generating multiple performance indicatorsas proxies for teleoperation service level. By applying the framework, weidentify factors influencing the trade-off and optimal teleoperator-to-vehicleratios under different scenarios. Our case study on road freight tours in TheNetherlands reveals that for any operational setting, ateleoperation-to-vehicle ratio below one can manage all freight truck tourswithout delay, while one represents the current situation. The minimumteleoperator-to-vehicle ratio for zero-delay operations is never above 0.6,implying a minimum of 40% teleoperation labor cost saving. For operations wherea small delay is allowed, teleoperator-to-vehicle ratios as low as 0.4 areshown to be feasible, which indicates potential savings of up to 60%. Thisconfirms great promise for a positive business case for the teleoperateddriving as a service.

An Agent-Based Discrete Event Simulation of Teleoperated Driving in Freight Transport Operations: The Fleet Sizing Problem