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Plant-frugivore interactions play a central role for plant persistence andspatial distribution by promoting the long-range dispersal of seeds byfrugivores. However, plant-frugivore interactions are increasingly beingthreatened by anthropogenic activities. An important anthropogenic threat thatcould expose plant-frugivore systems to extinction risk is fruit harvesting.Here, we develop an individual-based and a pair-approximation model ofplant-frugivore-human interactions to elucidate the effects of human harvestingof fruits on plant establishment, persistence, and spatial distribution. Ourresults show that frugivores strongly affect global density of plants andgradually shift their spatial distribution from aggregated to random, dependingon the attack rate and dispersal efficiency of frugivores. We find that, in theabsence of frugivores, plants experiencing intense fruit harvesting cannotpersist even if their fecundity is high. In the presence of frugivores, fruitharvesting profoundly affects the global dispersal of seeds and thus changesthe spatial distributions of plants from random to aggregated, potentiallycausing plant extinction. Our results demonstrate that sufficiently efficientfrugivores mitigate the negative impact of fruit harvesting on plantpopulations and enable plant establishment precluded by harvesting. Takentogether, these results draw attention to previously underappreciated impactsof fruit harvesting in plant-frugivore-human interactions.

Fruit harvesting: A potential threat to the persistence, spatial distribution, and establishment of plants