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Many $z=1.5$ galaxies with a stellar mass ($M_{\star}$) $\geq10^{10}\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$ are already quenched in both galaxy clusters ($>50$per cent) and the field ($>20$ per cent), with clusters having a higherquenched fraction at all stellar masses compared to the field. A puzzling issueis that these massive quenched galaxies have stellar populations of similar agein both clusters and the field. This suggests that, despite the higher quenchedfraction in clusters, the dominant quenching mechanism for massive galaxies issimilar in both environments. In this work, we use data from the cosmologicalhydrodynamic simulations Hydrangea and EAGLE to test whether the excessquenched fraction of massive galaxies in $z = 1.5$ clusters results fromfundamental differences in their halo properties compared to the field. We findthat (i) at $10^{10} \leq$ $M_{\star}/\,\mathrm{M}_\odot\leq 10^{11}$, quenchedfractions in the redshift range $1.5 < z < 3.5$ are consistently higher forgalaxies with higher peak maximum circular velocity of the dark matter halo($v_{\mathrm{max, peak}}$), and (ii) the distribution of $v_{\mathrm{max,peak}}$ is strongly biased towards higher values for cluster satellitescompared to the field centrals. Due to this difference in the halo propertiesof cluster and field galaxies, secular processes alone may account for (mostof) the environmental excess of massive quenched galaxies in high-redshift(proto) clusters. Taken at face value, our results challenge a fundamentalassumption of popular quenching models, namely that clusters are assembled froman unbiased subset of infalling field galaxies. If confirmed, this would implythat such models must necessarily fail at high redshift, as indicated by recentobservations.

An environment-dependent halo mass function as a driver for the early quenching of $z\geq1.5$ cluster galaxies