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The collaboration between humans and artificial intelligence (AI) is asignificant feature in this digital age. However, humans and AI may haveobservation, interpretation, and action conflicts when working synchronously.This phenomenon is often masked by faults and, unfortunately, overlooked. Thispaper systematically introduces the human-AI conflict concept, causes,measurement methods, and risk assessment. The results highlight that there is apotential second decision-maker besides the human, which is the AI; thehuman-AI conflict is a unique and emerging risk in digitalized process systems;and this is an interdisciplinary field that needs to be distinguished fromtraditional fault and failure analysis; the conflict risk is significant andcannot be ignored.

Alert of the Second Decision-maker: An Introduction to Human-AI Conflict