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We propose a new strategy to identify the impact of class rank, exploiting a"visible" primary school rank from teachers' exam grades, and an "invisible"rank from unreported standardized test scores. Leveraging a unique paneldataset on Italian students, we show that the visible rank has a substantialimpact on students' perceptions, which affects subsequent academic performance.However, the effect of being surrounded by higher-SES or higher-achieving peersremains positive even accounting for the decrease in rank. Higher-rankedstudents self-select into high schools with higher average studentachievements. Finally, exploiting an extensive survey, we identifypsychological mechanisms channeling the rank effect.

What is essential is visible to the eye: Saliency in primary school ranking and its effect on academic achievements