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The photon counting imaging paradigm in the visible and the infrared comesfrom the very small energy carried by a single photon at these wavelengths.Usually to detect photons the photoelectric effect is used. It converts aphoton to a single electron making it very difficult to detect because of thereadout noise of the electronics. To overcome this there are two strategies,either to amplify the signal to make it larger than the readout noise (used inthe so called gain or amplified detectors), or to lower the readout noise in astandard image sensor. For a long time, only amplified detectors were able todo some photon counting. Since the first photon counting systems in thevisible, developed by Boksenberg and his collaborators in 1972, many groupsaround the world improved photon counting techniques. In the 2000's in thevisible, EMCCDs (electron multiplying charge coupled devices) allowed toreplace the classical image intensifier photon counting systems by solid statedevices and improved a lot the QE. But EMCCDs suffer from several issues, andthe most important of them is the excess noise factor which prevents to knowthe exact incoming number of photons in the case of multiple photons per pixel.In the infrared there was no equivalent to EMCCDs up to the development ofe-APD sensors and cameras made with HgCdTe material (electron initiatedavalanche photo diode). With an excess noise factor near 1 at low temperatures,photon counting is possible with these devices but only in the infrared. Wewill show that having excess noise factor prevents from being able to domultiple photon counting (quanta imaging) and the only solution is to lower thereadout noise.

C-BLUE 3 PC : a photon counting multimegapixel visible CMOS camera