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We present a conceptual model to measure disparity--the target study--wheresocial groups may be similarly situated (i.e., balanced) on allowablecovariates. Our model, based on a sampling design, does not intervene to assignsocial group membership or alter allowable covariates. To address non-randomsample selection, we extend our model to generalize or transport disparity orto assess disparity after an intervention on eligibility-related variables thateliminates forms of collider-stratification. To avoid bias from differentialtiming of enrollment, we aggregate time-specific study results by balancingcalendar time of enrollment across social groups. To provide a framework foremulating our model, we discuss study designs, data structures, andG-computation and weighting estimators. We compare our sampling-based model toprominent decomposition-based models used in healthcare and algorithmicfairness. We provide R code for all estimators and apply our methods to measurehealth system disparities in hypertension control using electronic medicalrecords.

The Target Study: A Conceptual Model and Framework for Measuring Disparity