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With the rise of attacks on online accounts in the past years, more and moreservices offer two-factor authentication for their users. Having factors out oftwo of the three categories something you know, something you have andsomething you are should ensure that an attacker cannot compromise two of themat once. Thus, an adversary should not be able to maliciously interact withone's account. However, this is only true if one considers a weak adversary. Inparticular, since most current solutions only authenticate a session and notindividual transactions, they are noneffective if one's device is infected withmalware. For online banking, the banking industry has long since identified theneed for authenticating transactions. However, specifications of suchauthentication schemes are not public and implementation details vary wildlyfrom bank to bank with most still being unable to protect against malware. Inthis work, we present a generic approach to tackle the problem of maliciousaccount takeovers, even in the presence of malware. To this end, we define anew paradigm to improve two-factor authentication that involves the concepts ofone-out-of-two security and transaction authentication. Web authenticationschemes following this paradigm can protect security-critical transactionsagainst manipulation, even if one of the factors is completely compromised.Analyzing existing authentication schemes, we find that they do not realizeone-out-of-two security. We give a blueprint of how to design secure webauthentication schemes in general. Based on this blueprint we propose FIDO2With Two Displays (FIDO2D), a new web authentication scheme based on the FIDO2standard and prove its security using Tamarin. We hope that our work inspires anew wave of more secure web authentication schemes, which protectsecurity-critical transactions even against attacks with malware.

FIDO2 With Two Displays-Or How to Protect Security-Critical Web Transactions Against Malware Attacks