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Context: Smart contracts are computer programs that are automaticallyexecuted on the blockchain. Vulnerabilities in their implementation have led tosevere loss of cryptocurrency. Smart contracts become immutable when deployedto the Ethereum blockchain. Therefore, it is essential to understand the natureof vulnerabilities in Ethereum smart contracts to prevent them in the future.Existing classifications exist, but are limited in several ways. Objective: Weaim to characterize vulnerabilities in Ethereum smart contracts written inSolidity, and unify existing classifications schemes. Method: We extracted 2143vulnerabilities from public coding platforms and popular vulnerabilitydatabases and categorized them using a card sorting approach. We targeted theEthereum blockchain in this paper, as it is the first and most popularblockchain to support the deployment of smart contracts, and Solidity as themost widely used language to implement smart contracts. We devised aclassification scheme of smart contract vulnerabilities according to theirerror source and impact. Afterwards, we mapped existing classification schemesto our classification. Results: The resulting classification consists of 11categories describing the error source of a vulnerability and 13 categoriesdescribing potential impacts. Our findings show that the language specificcoding and the structural data flow categories are the dominant categories, butthat the frequency of occurrence differs substantially between the datasources. Conclusions: Our findings enable researchers to better understandsmart contract vulnerabilities by defining various dimensions of the problemand supporting our classification with mappings with literature-basedclassifications and frequency distributions of the defined categories.

A Fly in the Ointment: An Empirical Study on the Characteristics of Ethereum Smart Contracts Code Weaknesses and Vulnerabilities