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Grammatical cues are sometimes redundant with word meanings in naturallanguage. For instance, English word order rules constrain the word order of asentence like "The dog chewed the bone" even though the status of "dog" assubject and "bone" as object can be inferred from world knowledge andplausibility. Quantifying how often this redundancy occurs, and how the levelof redundancy varies across typologically diverse languages, can shed light onthe function and evolution of grammar. To that end, we performed a behavioralexperiment in English and Russian and a cross-linguistic computational analysismeasuring the redundancy of grammatical cues in transitive clauses extractedfrom corpus text. English and Russian speakers (n=484) were presented withsubjects, verbs, and objects (in random order and with morphological markingsremoved) extracted from naturally occurring sentences and were asked toidentify which noun is the subject of the action. Accuracy was high in bothlanguages (~89% in English, ~87% in Russian). Next, we trained a neural networkmachine classifier on a similar task: predicting which nominal in asubject-verb-object triad is the subject. Across 30 languages from eightlanguage families, performance was consistently high: a median accuracy of 87%,comparable to the accuracy observed in the human experiments. The conclusion isthat grammatical cues such as word order are necessary to convey subjecthoodand objecthood in a minority of naturally occurring transitive clauses;nevertheless, they can (a) provide an important source of redundancy and (b)are crucial for conveying intended meaning that cannot be inferred from thewords alone, including descriptions of human interactions, where roles areoften reversible (e.g., Ray helped Lu/Lu helped Ray), and expressingnon-prototypical meanings (e.g., "The bone chewed the dog.").

Grammatical cues to subjecthood are redundant in a majority of simple clauses across languages