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Phylogenetic comparative methods are new in our field and are shrouded, formost linguists, in at least a little mystery. Yet the path that led to theirdiscovery in comparative biology is so similar to the methodological history ofbalanced sampling, that it is only an accident of history that they were notdiscovered by a typologist. Here we clarify the essential logic behindphylogenetic comparative methods and their fundamental relatedness to a deepintellectual tradition focussed on sampling. Then we introduce concepts,methods and tools which will enable typologists to use these methods ineveryday typological research. The key commonality of phylogenetic comparativemethods and balanced sampling is that they attempt to deal with statisticalnon-independence due to genealogy. Whereas sampling can never achieveindependence and requires most comparative data to be discarded, phylogeneticcomparative methods achieve independence while retaining and using all data. Wediscuss the essential notions of phylogenetic signal; uncertainty about trees;typological averages and proportions that are sensitive to genealogy;comparison across language families; and the effects of areality. Extensivesupplementary materials illustrate computational tools for practical analysisand we illustrate the methods discussed with a typological case study of thelaminal contrast in Pama-Nyungan.

Challenges of sampling and how phylogenetic comparative methods help: With a case study of the Pama-Nyungan laminal contrast