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We studied the research performance of 69 countries by considering twodifferent types of new knowledge: incremental (normal) and fundamental(radical). In principle, these two types of new knowledge should be assessed attwo very different levels of citations, but we demonstrate that a simplerassessment can be performed based on the total number of papers (P) and theratio of the number of papers in the global top 10% of most cited papersdivided to the total number of papers (Ptop 10%/P). P represents the quantity,whereas the Ptop 10%/P ratio represents the efficiency. In ideal countries, Pand the Ptop 10%/P ratio are linked to the gross domestic product (GDP) and GDPthe per capita, respectively. Only countries with high Ptop 10%/P ratiosparticipate actively in the creation of fundamental new knowledge and haveNoble laureates. In real countries, the link between economic and scientificwealth can be modified by the technological activity and the research policy.We discuss how technological activity may decrease the Ptop 10%/P ratio whileonly slightly affecting the capacity to create fundamental new knowledge; insuch countries, many papers may report incremental innovations that do notdrive the advancement of knowledge. Japan is the clearest example of this,although there are many less extreme examples. Independently of technologicalactivity, research policy has a strong influence on the Ptop 10%/P ratio, whichmay be higher or lower than expected from the GDP per capita depending on thesuccess of the research policy.

The link between countries' economic and scientific wealth has a complex dependence on technological activity and research policy