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Monin-Obukhov similarity theory (MOST) is a well-tested approach forspecifying the fluxes when the roughness surfaces are homogeneous. For flowover waves (inhomogeneous surfaces), phase-averaged roughness length scales areoften prescribed through models based on the wave characteristics and the windspeed. However, such approaches lack generalizability over different wave agesand steepnesses due to the reliance on model coefficients tuned to specificdatasets. In this paper, a sea surface-based hydrodynamic drag model applicableto moving surfaces is developed to model the pressure-based surface drag feltby the wind due to the waves. The model is based on the surface gradientapproach of \citet{Anderson2010} applicable to stationary obstacles andextended here to the wind-wave problem. The wave drag model proposed specifiesthe hydrodynamic force based on the incoming momentum flux, wave phase speed,and the surface frontal area. The drag coefficient associated with thewind-wave momentum exchange is determined based on the wave steepness. The wavedrag model is used to simulate turbulent airflow above a monochromatic wavetrain with different wave ages and wave steepnesses. The mean velocity profilesand model form stresses are validated with available lab-scale experimentaldata and show good agreement across a wide range of wave steepnesses and waveages. The drag force is correlated with the wave surface gradient andout-of-phase with the wave height distribution by a factor $\pi/2$ for thesinusoidal wave-train considered. These results demonstrate that the currentapproach is sufficiently general over a wide parameter space compared to wavephase-averaged models with a minimal increase in computational cost.

A sea surface-based drag model for Large Eddy Simulation of wind-wave interaction