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Low-lying coastal cities across the world are vulnerable to the combinedimpact of rainfall and storm tide. However, existing approaches lack theability to model the combined effect of these flood mechanisms. Thus, toincrease flood resilience, modeling techniques to improve understanding andprediction of the combined effect of these flood hazards are critical. Toaddress this need, this study presents a modeling system for assessing thecombined flood risk to coastal cities under changing climate conditions thatleverages ocean modeling with land surface modeling capable of resolving urbandrainage infrastructure within the city. The modeling approach is demonstratedin quantifying the future impact on transportation infrastructure withinNorfolk, Virginia USA. A series of combined storms events are modeled forcurrent (2020) and projected future (2070) climate conditions. Results showthat pluvial flooding causes a larger interruption to the transportationnetwork compared to tidal flooding under current climate conditions. By 2070,however, tidal flooding will be the dominant flooding mechanism with evennuisance flooding expected to happen daily due to SLR. In 2070, nuisanceflooding is expected to cause a 4.6% total link close time (TLC), which is morethan two times that of a 50-year storm surge (1.8% TLC) in 2020. The coupledmodel was compared with a widely used but physically simplistic bathtub methodto assess the difference resulting from the more complex modeling presented.Results show that the bathtub method overestimated the flooded area near theshoreline by 9.5% and 3.1% for a 10-year storm surge event in 2020 and 2070,respectively, but underestimated flooded area in the inland region by 9.0% and4.0% for the same events. The findings demonstrate the benefit of sophisticatedmodeling methods in climate adaptive planning and policy in coastalcommunities.

Modeling the Combined Impact of Rainfall and Storm Tide on Coastal  Cities under a Changing Climate: Transportation Infrastructure Impacts in  Norfolk, Virginia USA as a Case Study