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The interface between the insulators LaAlO$_3$ and SrTiO$_3$ accommodates atwo-dimensional electron liquid (2DEL) -- a high mobility electron systemexhibiting superconductivity as well as indications of magnetism andcorrelations. While this flagship oxide heterostructure shows promise forelectronics applications, the origin and microscopic properties of the 2DELremain unclear. The uncertainty remains in part because the electronicstructures of such nanoscale buried interfaces are difficult to probe, and iscompounded by the variable presence of oxygen vacancies and coexistence of bothlocalized and delocalized charges. These various complications have precludeddecisive tests of intrinsic electronic and orbital reconstruction at thisinterface. Here we overcome prior difficulties by developing an interfaceanalysis based on the inherently interface-sensitive resonant x-rayreflectometry. We discover a high charge density of 0.5 electrons perinterfacial unit cell for samples above the critical LaAlO$_3$ thickness, andextract the depth dependence of both the orbital and electronic reconstructionsnear the buried interface. We find that the majority of the reconstructionphenomena are confined to within 2 unit cells of the interface, and we quantifyhow oxygen vacancies significantly affect the electronic system. Our resultsprovide strong support for the existence of polarity induced electronicreconstruction, clearly separating its effects from those of oxygen vacancies.

Intrinsic versus extrinsic orbital and electronic reconstructions at complex oxide interfaces