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A polycentric approach to ecosystem service (ES) governance that combinesindividual incentives for interdependent ES providers with collective action isa promising lever to overcome the decline in ES and generate win-win solutionsin agricultural landscapes. In this study, we explored the effectiveness ofsuch an approach by focusing on incentives for managed pollination targetingeither beekeepers or farmers who were either in communication with each otheror not. We used a stylized bioeconomic model to simulate (i) the mutualinterdependency through pollination in intensive agricultural landscapes and(ii) the economic and ecological impacts of introducing two beekeepingsubsidies and one pesticide tax. The findings showed that incentives generateda spillover effect, affecting not only targeted stakeholders but non-targetedstakeholders as well as the landscape, and that this effect was amplified bycommunication. However, none of the simulated types of polycentric ESgovernance proved sustainable overall: subsidies showed excellent economic butlow environmental performance, while the tax led to economic losses but wasbeneficial for the landscape. Based on these results, we identified threeconditions for sustainable ES governance based on communication betweenstakeholders and incentives: (i) strong mutual interdependency (i.e. fewalternatives exist for stakeholders), (ii) the benefits of communicationoutweigh the costs, and (iii) the incentivized ES drivers are not detrimentalto other ES. Further research is needed to systematize which combination ofindividual payments and collaboration are sustainable in which conditions.

Combining incentives for pollination with collective action to provide a bundle of ecosystem services in farmland