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Contaminated water is increasingly linked to diseases worldwide,necessitating the safety evaluation of the sources of domestic and drinkingwater in every locality. The present study aimed to assess water safety interms of lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), zinc(Zn), and microorganisms in the borehole and well water in Iwaya, Makoko, andIlaje in Lagos, Nigeria. Water samples were subjected to atomic absorptionspectroscopy (AAS) and microbiological examinations using standard protocolsand compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) permissible limits. Theaverage daily ingestion (ADI) and hazard quotient (HQ) of the selected heavymetals were also calculated using standard formulas. The AAS indicated that theborehole and well water of the three locations contained non-permissible levelsof Pb, Ni, and Cd (only the well water in Ilaje), while Zn, Cu, and Cr werenormal. In addition, the microbiological examinations showed that the boreholeand well water of the three locations contained abnormal bacteria and coliformcounts (well water only). The ADI and HQ of the selected heavy metals were lessthan one, which is the threshold at which a substance is considered safe forconsumption. Water could pose some health risks, and the consumers in high-riskareas should consider water treatment before consumption.

The concentration and health risk assessment of heavy metals and microorganisms in the groundwater of Lagos, Southwest Nigeria