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Observing ultrafast laser-induced structural changes in nanoscale systems isessential for understanding the dynamics of intense light-matter interactions.For laser intensities on the order of $10^{14} \, \rm W/cm^2$,highly-collisional plasmas are generated at and below the surface. Subsequenttransport processes such as heat conduction, electron-ion thermalization,surface ablation and resolidification occur at picosecond and nanosecond timescales. Imaging methods, e.g. using x-ray free-electron lasers (XFEL), werehitherto unable to measure the depth-resolved subsurface dynamics oflaser-solid interactions with appropriate temporal and spatial resolution. Herewe demonstrate picosecond grazing-incidence small-angle x-ray scattering(GISAXS) from laser-produced plasmas using XFEL pulses. Using multi-layer (ML)samples, both the surface ablation and subsurface density dynamics are measuredwith nanometer depth resolution. Our experimental data challenges thestate-of-the-art modeling of matter under extreme conditions and opens newperspectives for laser material processing and high-energy-density science.

Nanoscale subsurface dynamics of solids upon high-intensity laser irradiation observed by femtosecond grazing-incidence x-ray scattering