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Fundamental electronic processes such as charge-carrier transport andrecombination play a critical role in determining the efficiency of hybridperovskite solar cells. The presence of mobile ions complicates the developmentof a clear understanding of these processes as the ions may introduceexceptional phenomena such as hysteresis or giant dielectric constants. As aresult, the electronic landscape, including its interaction with mobile ions,is difficult to access both experimentally and analytically. To address thischallenge, we applied a series of small perturbation techniques includingimpedance spectroscopy (IS), intensity-modulated photocurrent spectroscopy(IMPS) and intensity-modulated photovoltage spectroscopy (IMVS) to planar$\mathrm{MAPbI_3}$ perovskite solar cells. Our measurements indicate that bothelectronic as well as ionic responses can be observed in all three methods andassigned by literature comparison. The results reveal that the dominantcharge-carrier loss mechanism is surface recombination by limitation of thequasi-Fermi level splitting. The interaction between mobile ions and theelectronic charge carriers leads to a shift of the apparent diode idealityfactor from 0.74 to 1.64 for increasing illumination intensity, despite therecombination mechanism remaining unchanged.

Open-Circuit Voltage Limitation by Surface Recombination in Perovskite Solar Cells