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Highly-efficient solar cells containing lead halide perovskites are expectedto revolutionize sustainable energy production in the coming years. Combiningthese next-generation solar panels with agriculture, can optimize land-use, butbrings new risks in case of leakage into the soil. Perovskites are generallyassumed to be toxic because of the lead (Pb), but experimental evidence tosupport this prediction is scarce. We used Arabidopsis thaliana to test thetoxicity of the lead-based perovskite MAPbI3 (MA = CH3NH3) and several of itsprecursors in plants. Our results show that MAPbI3 severely hampers plantgrowth at concentrations above 5 microM. Surprisingly, we find that theprecursors MAI is equally toxic, while lead-based precursors without iodide areonly toxic above 500 microM. These observations reveal that perovskite toxicityat low concentrations is caused by iodide ions specifically, and contrast thewidespread idea that lead is the most harmful component. We calculate thatiodide toxicity thresholds are likely to reach in the soil upon perovskiteleakage, but much less so for lead toxicity thresholds. Hence, this workstresses the importance to further understand and predict harmful effects ofiodide-containing perovskites in the environment.

Metal halide perovskite toxicity effects on plants are caused by iodide ions