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Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN) have been used to support low cost andmobile bi-directional communications for the Internet of Things (IoT), smartcity and a wide range of industrial applications. A primary security concern ofLPWAN technology is the attacks that block legitimate communication betweennodes resulting in scenarios like loss of packets, delayed packet arrival, andskewed packet reaching the reporting gateway. LoRa (Long Range) is a promisingwireless radio access technology that supports long-range communication at lowdata rates and low power consumption. LoRa is considered as one of the idealcandidates for building LPWANs. We use LoRa as a reference technology to reviewthe IoT security threats on the air and the applicability of differentcountermeasures that have been adopted so far. LoRa nodes that are close to thegateway use a small SF than the nodes which are far away. But it also implieslong in-the-air transmission time, which makes the transmitted packetsvulnerable to different kinds of malicious attacks, especially in the physicaland the link layer. Therefore, it is not possible to enforce a fixed set ofrules for all LoRa nodes since they have different levels of vulnerabilities.Our survey reveals that there is an urgent need for secure and uninterruptedcommunication between an end-device and the gateway, especially when the threatmodels are unknown in advance. We explore the traditional countermeasures andfind that most of them are ineffective now, such as frequency hopping andspread spectrum methods. In order to adapt to new threats, the emergingcountermeasures using game-theoretic approaches and reinforcement machinelearning methods can effectively identify threats and dynamically choose thecorresponding actions to resist threats, thereby making secured and reliablecommunications.

Security Issues of Low Power Wide Area Networks in the Context of LoRa Networks