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Roman-era concrete is the iconic embodiment of long-term physicochemicalresilience. We investigated the basis of this behavior across scales ofobservations by coupling time-lapse (4-D) tomographic imaging of macroscopicmechanical stressing with structural microscopy and chemical spectroscopy onRoman marine concrete (RMC) from ancient harbors in Italy and Israel.Stress-strain measurements revealed that RMC creeps and exhibits a ductiledeformation mode. The permeability of specimens from Italy were found to be lowdue to increased matrix-aggregate bonding. Structural and chemical imagingshows the presence of well-developed sulfur-rich, fibrous minerals that areintertwined and embedded in a crossbred matrix having the chemical traits ofboth a calcium-aluminum-silicate-hydrate and a geopolymer. This latter likelyreflects the ultra-alkaline volcanic nature of the primary source materials. Wehypothesize that the fine interweave of sulfur-rich fibers within thiscrossbred matrix enhances aggregate bonding, which altogether contributes tothe durability of RMC.

The Importance of the Ultra-alkaline Volcanic Nature of the Raw Materials to the Ductility of Roman Marine Concrete