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The emergence of India as an urbanized nation is one of the most significantsocioeconomic and political processes of the 21st century. An essential featureof India's urbanization has been the growth and persistence of informalsettlements (slums) in its fast-developing cities. Whether living conditions inIndian urban slums constitute a path to human development or a poverty trap istherefore an issue of vital importance. Here, we characterize census data usingthe framework of urban scaling to systematically characterize the relativeproperties of Indian urban slums, focusing on attributes of neighborhoods suchas access to basic services like water, sanitation, and electrical power. Wefind that slums in larger cities offer systematically higher levels of serviceaccess than those in smaller cities. Perhaps as expected, we also findconsistent underperformance in service access in slums in comparison withnon-slum neighborhoods in the same cities. However, urban slums, on average,offer greater access to services than neighborhoods in rural areas. Thissituation, which we quantify systematically, may help explain why Indian largercities have remained attractive to rural populations in terms of livingstandards, beyond the need for an economic income premium.

Life Between the City and the Village: Comparative Analysis of Service Access in Indian Urban Slums