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A conceptual model relating the whitecap coverage to the bubble plumebuoyancy is developed following the observation that the entrained bubble plumebuoyancy constitutes a large portion of the breaking wave energy dissipation.The formulation leads to estimations of an effective or equivalent-buoyancydepth of bubble entrainment as well as the volume and surface area of bubblesentrained by surface wave breaking. The results show that the air-waterinterface area per unit sea surface area is enhanced dramatically by theentrained bubbles: on the order of 10 m^2 at about 15 m/s wind speed. Theeffective entrainment depth represents the vertical reach of the bubble plumeas if all the bubbles were collected into this depth. Based on empiricalobservations of whitecaps and breaking wave energy dissipation, it is about0.11 m and relatively independent on wind speed. The void fraction of the topmeter ocean layer is related linearly to the whitecap coverage with aproportionality factor of 0.11. The nearly-constant effective entrainment depthessentially renders the bubble entrainment process during the active wavebreaking stage into a lateral 2D problem. Published high speed video recordingsof bubble plume evolution appear to support this conclusion. Consistent withthe nearly-constant effective entrainment depth, relevant breaking wave speedsare within a narrow range between about 2 and 3.5 m/s and depend on wind speedonly weakly. Whitecap observations can also be used to quantify some elusivebreaking properties such as the breaking strength parameter b relating thebreaking energy dissipation rate and length of breaking front.

Estimating the volume and surface area of air bubbles entrained by  breaking waves from whitecap observations: With implications on the  characteristic breaking wave speed and breaking strength parameter