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Understanding wildlife-livestock interactions is crucial for the design andmanagement of protected areas that aim to conserve large mammal communitiesundergoing conflicts with humans worldwide. An example of the need to quantifythe strength and direction of species interactions is the conservation of bigcats in newly established protected areas in China. Currently, free-ranginglivestock degrade the food and habitat of the endangered Amur tiger and Amurleopard in the forest landscapes of Northeast China, but quantitativeassessments of how livestock affect the use of habitat by the major ungulateprey of these predators are very limited. Here, we examined livestock-ungulateinteractions using large-scale camera-trap data in the newly established Tigerand Leopard National Park in Northeast China, which borders Russia. We usedN-mixture models, two-species occupancy models and activity pattern overlap tounderstand the effects of cattle grazing on three ungulate species (wild boar,roe deer and sika deer) at a fine spatiotemporal scale. Our results showed thatincorporating the biotic interactions with cattle had significant negativeeffects on encounters with three ungulates; sika deer were particularlydisplaced as more cattle encroached on forest habitat, as they exhibited lowlevels of co-occurrence with cattle in terms of habitat use. These results,combined with spatiotemporal overlap, suggested fine-scale avoidancebehaviours, and they can help to refine strategies for the conservation oftigers, leopards and their prey in human-dominated transboundary landscapes.Progressively controlling cattle and the impact of cattle on biodiversity whilesimultaneously addressing the economic needs of local communities should be keypriority actions for the Chinese government.

Effects of free-ranging livestock on sympatric herbivores at fine spatiotemporal scales