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We describe a single fingertip-mounted sensing system for robot manipulationthat provides proximity (pre-touch), contact detection (touch), and forcesensing (post-touch). The sensor system consists of optical time-of-flightrange measurement modules covered in a clear elastomer. Because the elastomeris clear, the sensor can detect and range nearby objects, as well as measuredeformations caused by objects that are in contact with the sensor and therebyestimate the applied force. We examine how this sensor design can be improvedwith respect to invariance to object reflectivity, signal-to-noise ratio, andcontinuous operation when switching between the distance and force measurementregimes. By harnessing time-of-flight technology and optimizing theelastomer-air boundary to control the emitted light's path, we develop a sensorthat is able to seamlessly transition between measuring distances of up to 50mmand contact forces of up to 10 newtons. Furthermore, we provide all hardwaredesign files and software sources, and offer thorough instructions on how tomanufacture the sensor from inexpensive, commercially available components.

Improved Proximity, Contact, and Force Sensing via Optimization of Elastomer-Air Interface Geometry