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We study the coevolutionary dynamics of the diversity of phenotype expressionand the evolution of cooperation in the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Rather thanpre-assigning zero-or-one interaction rate, we diversify the rate ofinteraction by associating it with the phenotypes shared in common. Individualseach carry a set of potentially expressible phenotypes and expresses a certainnumber of phenotypes at a cost proportional to the number. The number ofexpressed phenotypes and thus the rate of interaction is an evolvable trait.Our results show that nonnegligible cost of expressing phenotypes restrainsphenotype expression, and the evolutionary race mainly proceeds on betweencooperative strains and defective strains who express a very few phenotypes. Itpays for cooperative strains to express a very few phenotypes. Though such alow level of expression weakens reciprocity between cooperative strains, itdecelerates rate of interaction between cooperative strains and defectivestrains to a larger degree, leading to the predominance of cooperative strainsover defective strains. We also find that evolved diversity of phenotypeexpression can occasionally destabilize due to the invasion of defectivemutants, implying that cooperation and diversity of phenotype expression canmutually reinforce each other. Therefore, our results provide new insights intobetter understanding the coevolution of cooperation and the diversity ofphenotype expression.

Phenotype affinity mediated interactions can facilitate the evolution of cooperation