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The central question we seek to address in this paper is: How rapidly do theoperating cost benefits of grid-scale energy storage decline as installedstorage capacity increases? We use a 240-bus model based on the US WesternInterconnection, first optimally locating storage in the network and thendispatching it in a unit commitment model with DC load flow. The model usesstorage to provide frequency regulation, load following, and arbitrage for eachhour of a study year, and we investigate a range of scenarios for fuel priceand renewables penetration. We find that value from long-term energy shiftingis negligible at all penetrations we investigate, but also that displacingfossil-fueled generators from providing reserves is initially very valuable.However, in most scenarios the value is negligible beyond 10 GWh of storage, orthe equivalent of roughly 6 minutes of average demand in the system. Abovepenetrations of 4-8 GWh, storage operating cost benefits are less thanestimated capacity values for storage. We also show that storage has thepotential to increase overall carbon emissions in the electricity sector, evenwhen it is not providing significant amounts of arbitrage and is preferentiallyproviding regulation and load following services.

How much energy storage do modern power systems need?