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Container technologies, like Docker, are becoming increasingly popular.Containers provide exceptional developer experience because containers offerlightweight isolation and ease of software distribution. Containers are alsowidely used in production environments, where a different set of challengesarise such as security, networking, service discovery and load balancing.Container cluster management tools, such as Kubernetes, attempt to solve theseproblems by introducing a new control layer with the container as the unit ofdeployment. However, adding a new control layer is an extra configuration stepand an additional potential source of runtime errors. The virtual machinetechnology offered by cloud providers is more mature and proven in terms ofsecurity, networking, service discovery and load balancing. However, virtualmachines are heavier than containers for local development, are less flexiblefor resource allocation, and suffer longer boot times. This paper presents analternative to containers that enjoy the best features of both approaches: (1)the use of mature, proven cloud vendor technology; (2) no need for a newcontrol layer; and (3) as lightweight as containers. Our solution is i2kit, adeployment tool based on the immutable infrastructure pattern, where thevirtual machine is the unit of deployment. The i2kit tool accepts a simplifiedformat of Kubernetes Deployment Manifests in order to reuse Kubernetes' mostsuccessful principles, but it creates a lightweight virtual machine for eachPod using Linuxkit. Linuxkit alleviates the drawback in size that using virtualmachines would otherwise entail, because the footprint of Linuxkit isapproximately 60MB. Finally, the attack surface of the system is reduced sinceLinuxkit only installs the minimum set of OS dependencies to run containers,and different Pods are isolated by hypervisor technology.

i2kit: A Tool for Immutable Infrastructure Deployments based on Lightweight Virtual Machines specialized to run Containers