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The gas mechanism in Ethereum charges the execution of every operation toensure that smart contracts running in EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine) will beeventually terminated. Failing to properly set the gas costs of EVM operationsallows attackers to launch DoS attacks on Ethereum. Although Ethereum recentlyadjusted the gas costs of EVM operations to defend against known DoS attacks,it remains unknown whether the new setting is proper and how to configure it todefend against unknown DoS attacks. In this paper, we make the first step toaddress this challenging issue by first proposing an emulation-based frameworkto automatically measure the resource consumptions of EVM operations. Theresults reveal that Ethereum's new setting is still not proper. Moreover, weobtain an insight that there may always exist exploitable under-pricedoperations if the cost is fixed. Hence, we propose a novel gas cost mechanism,which dynamically adjusts the costs of EVM operations according to the numberof executions, to thwart DoS attacks. This method punishes the operations thatare executed much more frequently than before and lead to high gas costs. Tomake our solution flexible and secure and avoid frequent update of Ethereumclient, we design a special smart contract that collaborates with the updatedEVM for dynamic parameter adjustment. Experimental results demonstrate that ourmethod can effectively thwart both known and unknown DoS attacks with flexibleparameter settings. Moreover, our method only introduces negligible additionalgas consumption for benign users.

An Adaptive Gas Cost Mechanism for Ethereum to Defend Against Under-Priced DoS Attacks