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NAND flash memory is ubiquitous in everyday life today because its capacityhas continuously increased and cost has continuously decreased over decades.This positive growth is a result of two key trends: (1) effective processtechnology scaling; and (2) multi-level (e.g., MLC, TLC) cell data coding.Unfortunately, the reliability of raw data stored in flash memory has alsocontinued to become more difficult to ensure, because these two trends lead to(1) fewer electrons in the flash memory cell floating gate to represent thedata; and (2) larger cell-to-cell interference and disturbance effects. Withoutmitigation, worsening reliability can reduce the lifetime of NAND flash memory.As a result, flash memory controllers in solid-state drives (SSDs) have becomemuch more sophisticated: they incorporate many effective techniques to ensurethe correct interpretation of noisy data stored in flash memory cells.  In this chapter, we review recent advances in SSD error characterization,mitigation, and data recovery techniques for reliability and lifetimeimprovement. We provide rigorous experimental data from state-of-the-art MLCand TLC NAND flash devices on various types of flash memory errors, to motivatethe need for such techniques. Based on the understanding developed by theexperimental characterization, we describe several mitigation and recoverytechniques, including (1) cell-tocell interference mitigation; (2) optimalmulti-level cell sensing; (3) error correction using state-of-the-artalgorithms and methods; and (4) data recovery when error correction fails. Wequantify the reliability improvement provided by each of these techniques.Looking forward, we briefly discuss how flash memory and these techniques couldevolve into the future.

Errors in Flash-Memory-Based Solid-State Drives: Analysis, Mitigation, and Recovery