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According to the theory of urban scaling, urban indicators scale with citysize in a predictable fashion. In particular, indicators of social and economicproductivity are expected to have a superlinear relation. This behavior wasverified for many urban systems, but recent findings suggest that this patternmay not be valid for England and Wales (E&W), where income has a linearrelation with city size. This finding raises the question of whether the citiesof E&W exhibit any superlinear relation with respect to quantities such as thelevel of education and occupational groups. In this paper, we evaluate thescaling of educational and occupational groups of E&W to see if we can detectsuperlinear relations in the number of educated and better-paid persons. As E&Wmay be unique in its linear scaling of income, we complement our analysis bycomparing it to the urban system of the United States (US), a country for whichsuperlinear scaling of income has already been demonstrated. To make the twourban systems comparable, we define the urban systems of both countries usingthe same method and test the sensitivity of our results to changes in theboundaries of cities. We find that cities of E&W exhibit patterns ofsuperlinear scaling with respect to education and certain categories ofbetter-paid occupations. However, the tendency of such groups to havesuperlinear scaling seems to be more consistent in the US. We show that whilethe educational and occupational distributions of US cities can partly explainthe superlinear scaling of earnings, the distribution leads to a linear scalingof earnings in E&W.

Superlinear scaling in the urban system of England of Wales. A comparison with US cities