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It is known that some network operators inject false content into users'network traffic. Yet all previous works that investigate this practice focus onedge ISPs (Internet Service Providers), namely, those that provide Internetaccess to end users. Edge ISPs that inject false content affect their customersonly. However, in this work we show that not only edge ISPs may inject falsecontent, but also core network operators. These operators can potentially alterthe traffic of \emph{all} Internet users who visit predetermined websites. Weexpose this practice by inspecting a large amount of traffic originating fromseveral networks. Our study is based on the observation that the forged trafficis injected in an out-of-band manner: the network operators do not update thenetwork packets in-path, but rather send the forged packets \emph{without}dropping the legitimate ones. This creates a race between the forged and thelegitimate packets as they arrive to the end user. This race can be identifiedand analyzed. Our analysis shows that the main purpose of content injection isto increase the network operators' revenue by inserting advertisements towebsites. Nonetheless, surprisingly, we have also observed numerous cases ofinjected malicious content. We publish representative samples of the injectionsto facilitate continued analysis of this practice by the security community.

Website-Targeted False Content Injection by Network Operators