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Nowadays, the experimental study of emotional learning is commonly based onclassical conditioning paradigms and models, which have been thoroughlyinvestigated in the last century. On the contrary, limited attention has beenpaid to the revaluation of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which, asexperimentally observed by various researchers in the last four decades, occursout of classical conditioning. For this reason, no analytical or quantitativetheory has been developed for this phenomenon and its dynamics. Unluckily,models based on classical conditioning are unable to explain or predictimportant psychophysiological phenomena, such as the failure of the extinctionof emotional responses in certain circumstances. In this manuscript ananalytical representation of UCS revaluation learning is developed; this allowsus to identify the conditions determining the "inextinguishability" (orresistant-to-extinction) property of emotional responses and reactions (such asthose observed in evaluative conditioning, in the nonreinforcement presentationof a conditioned inhibitor, in post-traumatic stress disorders and in panicattacks). Furthermore, an analysis of the causal relation existing betweenclassical conditioning and UCS revaluation is provided. Starting from thisresult, a theory of implicit emotional learning and a novel interpretation ofclassical conditioning are derived. Moreover, we discuss how the proposedtheory can lead to the development of new methodologies for the detection andthe treatment of undesired or pathological emotional responses, and can inspireanimal models for resistant-to-extinction responses and reactions.

Prediction Errors Drive UCS Revaluation and not Classical Conditioning: Evidence and Neurophysiological Consequences