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The decline in extent of wild pollinators in recent years has been partlyassociated with changing farm practices and in particular with increasingpesticide use. In this paper we combine ecological modelling with economicanalysis of a single farm output under the as- sumption that both pollinationand pest control are essential inputs. We show that the drive to increase farmoutput can lead to a local decline in the wild bee population. Commercial beesare often considered an alternative to wild pollinators, but we show that theirintro- duction can lead to further decline and finally local extinction of wildbees. The transitions between different outcomes are characterised by thresholdbehaviour and are potentially difficult to predict and detect in advance. Smallchanges in economic parameters (input prices) and ecological parameters (wildbees carrying capacity and effect of pesticides on bees) can move theeconomic-ecological system beyond the extinction threshold. We also show thatincreasing the pesticide price or decreasing the commercial bee price mightlead to re-establishment of wild bees following their local extinction. Thus,we demonstrate the importance of combining ecological modelling with economicsto study the provision of ecosystem services and to inform sustainablemanagement of ecosystem service providers.

Ecological-economic modelling of interactions between wild and commercial bees and pesticide use