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Besides humans, several marine mammal species exhibit prerequisites to evolvelanguage: high cognitive abilities, flexibility in vocal production andadvanced social interactions. Here, we describe and analyse the vocalrepertoire of long-finned pilot whales (Globicephalus melas) recorded innorthern Norway. Observer based analysis reveals a complex vocal repertoirewith 140 different call types, call sequences, call repetitions andgroup-specific differences in the usage of call types. Developing and applyinga new automated analysis method, the bag-of-calls approach, we find that groupsof pilot whales can be distinguished purely by statistical properties of theirvocalisations. Comparing inter-and intra-group differences of ensembles ofcalls allows to identify and quantify group-specificity. Consequently, thebag-of-calls approach is a valid method to specify difference and concordancein acoustic communication in the absence of exact knowledge about signalers,which is common observing marine mammals under natural conditions.

Bag-of-calls analysis reveals group-specific vocal repertoire in long-finned pilot whales