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Survey respondents may give untruthful answers to sensitive questions whenasked directly. In recent years, researchers have turned to the list experiment(also known as the item count technique) to overcome this difficulty. Whilelist experiments may be less prone to bias than direct questioning, listexperiments are also more susceptible to sampling variability. We show thatresearchers do not have to abandon direct questioning altogether in order togain the advantages of list experimentation. We develop a nonparametricestimator of the prevalence of sensitive behaviors that combines listexperimentation and direct questioning. We prove that this estimator isasymptotically more efficient than the standard difference-in-means estimator,and we provide a basis for inference using Wald-type confidence intervals.Additionally, leveraging information from the direct questioning, we derive twononparametric placebo tests of the identifying assumptions for the listexperiment. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our combined estimator andplacebo tests with an original survey experiment.

Combining List Experiment and Direct Question Estimates of Sensitive Behavior Prevalence